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How to Write A Dissertation Proposal – A Statistician’s Viewpoint
By Steve Creech | January 22, 2011
1) It starts with personal interest
in a “general topic” within your area of specialization. Most likely this topic
is something you are familiar with from personal or professional experience.
2) Conduct some preliminary
literature review to insure the general topic you have in mind has not already
been thoroughly researched and published (i.e. don’t reinvent the wheel).
3) Once you have identified a
general topic and you have done enough literature review to know you are not
reinventing the wheel, hire a statistician to help with the statistical aspects
of your proposal.
Aside: I charge on a fixed price
basis. Whether you get me on-board from day one, or after attempting to get
your entire proposal accepted, only to have it rejected one or more times, the
price is the same. It is almost always “more” work for me to help a doctoral
student that has gotten very far into the proposal than to help a doctoral
student that is just starting out. The sooner you start working with a
statistical consultant, the smoother things will go for you. With my services,
since it is the same price, why not get me on-board early?
4) Consult with the statistician
about your topic and share your ideas about what sort of data you want to
collect (e.g. maybe you have a particular survey in mind, or an archived data
set). The statistician can advise you on methodological considerations relating
to your planned approach. Most likely the statistician will point out a variety
of options, each of which has pros and cons, and the choices you make have
implications for your problem statement, purpose of the study, research
questions, instrumentation, population and more.
5) After the consultation with the
statistician, you should have a rough draft of your problem statement, purpose
of the study, research questions, independent and dependent variables, research
questions, instrumentation, population and data collection strategy.
Aside: I almost always send a rough
draft of that information after the first collaborative phone consultation.
Then, within a matter of 7 days or less, I will have completed all of the
statistical considerations for your proposal (e.g. data analysis plan, sample
size justification).
6) Once you receive the write-up of
the statistical considerations from the statistician (just a cleaned up,
technically written documentation of what we collaborated on during the initial
consultation), then it is just a matter of incorporating that information into
the current draft of your proposal.
7) Actually writing the proposal
from this point on is largely an organizational challenge. I believe you should
use the following process to “construct” the proposal:
1. Start with a blank Word Document.
2. Insert the title on page 1
3. Copy the Table of Contents from
the rubric onto pages 2 through however many pages it takes.
4. On the very next page, insert the
chapter heading (e.g. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION), and underneath that, insert
each of the section headings that go in that chapter. Make sure the section
headings match the rubric. Don’t add additional headings, don’t leave any out,
and don’t change the order.
5. Repeat step four for chapters 2
(Literature review) and 3 (Methodology).
6. Make a copy of the document you
just created and save it as something like “Disseration Proposal Shell”.
7. Using a copy of the “Shell” from
step 6, start with chapter 1. Skim through the sub-headings and pick the one
you feel the most confident in, the one you think you could write off the top
of your head (i.e. the low hanging fruit).
8. Write as little as you possibly
can in that section, while capturing all of the main points that you think
should be in that section. Try to keep it to one paragraph or less if possible.
9. Pick the next section in chapter
1 that you feel most comfortable with and repeat step 8.
10. Continue steps 8 and 9 until you
get stuck. If you are stuck, if it has anything to do with statistics, consult
with your statistician for advice. If it is a subject matter issue, maybe you
need to stop and do more literature review.
11. Follow steps 8-10 until you have
1 paragraph or less written in every section of chapter 1. You might find that
while doing this, you can fill in some of the sections in chapters 2 and 3. Go
ahead and do that also. After all, you should have the research questions,
hypotheses, data analysis plan, power analysis and other statistical
considerations from your statistician by this point, and that all goes in
chapter 3.
12. Once you have written 1
paragraph or less in every section of chapters 1, 2 and 3, stop and save a
copy. That is your “bird’s eye view” of the entire proposal.
13. Work on cleaning up the “Bird’s
Eye View” of your proposal until it flows naturally, with smooth transitions
from one section to the next.
14. Review each section again and
ask yourself, did I “mention each core idea” that needs to go into this section
(check the rubric for what should be there)? If you missed an idea, add it. Do
this for all of the sections and save this as Bird’s Eye View Revision 1.
15. Run the Bird’s Eye View draft
past your statistician. He or she should be able to tell you if there are any
inconsistencies with what you wrote, and the statistical aspects of your study.
The statistician should also be able to give you critical input about how to
make the paper flow logically.
16. Now that you have this Bird’s
eye view of the proposal finished, it is just a matter of “fleshing out” each
section. What I would do is take each main “idea” within each section,
determine how long I want that section to be, and then decide how much I want
to expand on each main idea until that section is the desired length.
17. At this point you should have a
well organized and nearly complete dissertation proposal. Read through it
carefully, correct as many grammar and punctuation mistakes as possible and try
to make the transitions from one section to the next as smooth as possible.
Then, submit that draft to your statistician for another review.
18. The statistician will likely
recommend a number of revisions to help organize the proposal and to insure
what you wrote is consistent with the statistical aspects of the study. Work
with the statistician back and forth until there are no further revisions from
the statistician’s perspective.
19. Submit the proposal to your
mentor. The mentor will likely have several comments, questions and suggested
revisions. Share those comments with your statistician. You want to make sure
you understand any comments and questions that relate to the statistical
aspects of your study. Work with your statistician to develop responses to the
reviewer’s comments.
Aside: Just because the mentor
suggested a revision doesn’t mean you should make that revision. Remember, you
probably know 10 times more about your study than your mentor does at this
point. You have probably spent several weeks if not months of intensive work on
just this one study, whereas your mentor has to teach and probably mentor
several other doctoral students as well.
20. Once you have developed a
response to every comment from the mentor, making revisions where you and your
statistician felt they were appropriate, send the revised draft back to the
mentor.
21. Repeat steps 19 and 20 until the
mentor has no further comments and passes it on to the other committee members.
22. Repeat steps 19-21 for the other
committee members until they are satisfied and they submit the proposal to the
ARB, IRB, external reviewer or whatever the next step is at your university.
23. By this point, you should be
very close to having an accepted proposal.
Sample of an academic essay
Social, Legal and Professional Aspects of Computing
Content of the essay
Introduction
Section 1: An analysis of ethical aspects of the case
Brief summary
Stakeholders and
main ethical issue
Total Web
Solutions Ltd, MySpace Inc , Public, Internet service providers, Company (and
patent) registrar, Social web sites, British Computer Society, Legal
Associations, Courts of Law
Ethical analysis
of stakeholders
Teleological theories (egoism,
utilitarianism, altruism)
Deontology
Kant’s first and second imperatives
Buddhist axiology
Section 2: Reflective analysis
Lessons learnt
from the module
Matters associated
with social, ethical, professional and legal aspects, An awareness of risks and
inculcating of a safe culture, Reflection, SWOT analysis, academic writing
Using the
knowledge for future personal development planning
Good citizenship,
High quality social relationships, Moral responsibility, Risk free and safe
home environment, healthy life, economic life
Use of the
knowledge for future career development
Frequent
referencing, Reflection and journal writing, Verbal communication Advanced
analysis of ethics, Risk awareness and safety culture, SWOT analysis, Writing
up academic essays
References
Bibliography
Introduction
This essay consists of two sections.
The first section deals with an analysis of ethical aspects of MySpace, Inc v
Total Web Solutions Ltd. The first sub-section of the first section commences with
brief summary of the case, secondly identifies the primary and secondary
stakeholders. Moreover, thereafter the normative analyses of stakeholders’ acts
are presented based on teleological, deontological, and Kantian principles. The
second section deals with reflective analysis based on the learning of social,
legal and professional aspects of computing, which begins to present what the
writer has learnt from the course module. Thereafter it presents the ways and
means of using knowledge gained in future personal development planning. The
third that is the last sub-section of the second section indicates the ways and
means of using learnt knowledge for the writer’s career development.
Section 1: An analysis of the ethical aspects of the case
Total Web Solutions Ltd (TWS)
established in 1995 and registered its domain name myspace.co.uk in 1997. Six
years after the domain name registration MySpace, Inc was founded. In the next year,
TWS changed the use of its domain name in order to take the advantage of the
popularity of the social networking site. MySpace, Inc. issues a complain under
the DRS in 2007.
Prior to the identification, it is
important to the overview the definitions of stakeholders. Evan and Freeman (2005, p.80) define stakeholders as
any group or individuals who can affect or be affected by the cooperation. Harrison
(2005, p.33) considers other organizations in the business environment and further
says the stakeholders are the individuals, groups or other organizations.
Examples for stakeholders are given by Murry (1997, p.16), Harrison (2005, p.34)
and Des Jardins (2009, p.67) which include common things as well as specific
things which leads to prepare a new array of examples. Murry (1997, p.16)
presents examples for stakeholders in graphical form and which includes
shareholders, customers, suppliers, employees, partners, natural environment,
local community (and very many more) in
an organization. Harrison (2005, pp.33-4) provides eleven categories of stakeholders which includes employees,
customers, suppliers, shareholders, other suppliers of capital, local communities,
government, pressure groups, competitors, trade unions and professional
institutes. The public is identified as a stakeholder by Des Jardins (2009, p.67),
as they are benefitted at the expense of suppliers, customers, and local
communities. In a business environment most affected or be affected are known
as primary stakeholders where as the rest is commonly known as secondary
stakeholders. Since Total Web Solutions
(TWS) and MySpace Inc create the
scenario and are competitors hence both they are primary stakeholders. The public becomes the customers in this
case, therefore they too are stakeholders, and are the most important to become
the primary stakeholders. Internet
Service Providers (ISPs), Company (and
patent) Registrar and Social
Networks are suppliers as such they provide the services needed for proper
functioning, hence they are also stakeholders, whereas the case and the
consequences concerned they are not involved, thus they become secondary
stakeholders. The issue is the importance of professional associations, accordingly
the British Computer Society (BCS)
and legal associations, who deals
with intellectual properties, but in decision, making their contribution is
less becomes secondary stakeholders. The jurisdiction is executed by the courts of law, probably making a new
law, is very decisive so that becomes a primary stakeholder. Before the
overview of relevance theories for ethical analysis, now it is time to state
that the main issue is violation of copyright laws.
The normative ethical analysis of TWS is done selecting the appropriate
theories namely teleology and deontology and Kantians. Egoism and utilitarianism are
the theories considered under the teleology which is also known as consequentialist
(Holland, 2010 and Premasiri, 1998, p.76) hold that choices, acts, and
intentions are to be morally assessed solely by the states of affairs they
bring about (Johnson, 2001, p.36). Further teleology specifies the states of
affairs that are intrinsically good or favourable for the person responsible
for the affair (Des Jardins, 2009, p.87). Thereafter teleology in a position to
assert that whatever the choices increase the good, that is bring about more of
it are morally right to make and execute. Cambridge dictionary (1996, p.444) meaning
for egoism is self-interest is more important than other people are. Harrison (2005,
p.63) says egoism involves the decision-making entirely on self-interest in
optimizing the personal consequences of action. The TWS, a legal personality
acts in society in general to maximize their profit. Hence, the ethical
evaluation of TWS can consider under egoism. Utilitarian favours the society to
gain the maximum amount of good on it (Des Jardins 2009, p.30; Johnson, 2001, p.32
and Premasiri, 1998, p.110). In the modern society TWS provides a very
essential service, therefore the acts of TWS can consider using utilitarianism.
TWS has introduced number of links from August 2005, to generate revenue for them.
That means it has taken the advantage of considering many links as a means but
not an end. This is unethical according to Kant’s second formulation (Johnson,
2001, p.44; Dhammananda, 2004, p.70 and Kalansooriya, 2002, p.301). Hence, the
act of TWS can examine using Kant’s second categorical imperative too.
The normative ethical analysis of MySpace, Inc is done selecting the
appropriate theories namely teleology, deontology, and Kantianism. Egoism, utilitarianism,
and altruism are the theories
considered under teleology. Kant’s first
and the second categorical imperatives
are considered under the Kantian principles. The objectives of MySpace, Inc may
differ from TWS, but the consequences are the same as TWS. That is the existence
as a successful business organization in society. Hence MySpace, Inc too should
also be considered under the egoism, as the argument provided for TWS is
equally applied here. The fact discussed already under the utilitarianism of
TWS also equally applies for the MySpace, Inc since it is also a legal
personality in the business environment. Hence, the acts of MySpace, Inc can be
analysed using utilitarianism. Dhammananda (2004, p.81) says that altruism is
do the good as it is good without
considering benefits to the actor, what is possible in the future. MySpace, Inc
has adopted legal measures, it is costly, but provides an example for the
business people in the IT industry. Hence, there is a possibility of analyzing
the acts of MySpace Inc using altruism. De George (2003, p.211) reports exactly
similar case that is a court judgment James Strickland, known as “Strick”,
registered the domain name “Strick.com” in 1995. In 1997, the Strick
Corporation founded, which owns the trademark “Strick”, sued for use of its
trademark, but the court ruled that Strickland was not cyber squatting, did not
seek to sell its domain name for a profit, and had a legitimate first claim to
register that domain. As this considers breaking up courts given decisions that
is known as court made laws, it should be considered under deontology. Pierce (nd,
in Holt and Newton, 2004, p.67) further explains that in case of problems with
domain names and trademarks domain names are generally allocated to the first
person to register, although there are special arrangements to trademark owner
to have priority. Pierce further states that if somebody has already registered
the name that the other party is seeking to register, that party will only be
able to appose the registration in limited circumstances. The judgment
criterion here is the good faith so that, it is regarding will should consider
under Kant’s first categorical imperative (Kalansooriya, 2002, p.301; Bowie,
1999, pp.17-8; Premasiri, 1998, p.102 and et. al.). The domain name
myspace.co.uk is already registered and its owner is TWS since 1997. Nevertheless,
the company became after further six years (2003) takes legal action as a means
to achieve their objective of getting the ownership of domain name registered
by TWS. Accordingly, the morality of means and ends described in Kant’s second
formula in the early discussion the action of MySpace, Inc can be considered
under the Kant’s second formulation too.
The normative ethical analysis of public has done selection with utilitarianism
and deontology. Public are the consumers of services provided by both TWS and
MySpace, Inc. The consequences of both companies affect the welfare of public
not only in quality but also in numbers. Hence, Utilitarianism is very
appropriate to analyze the scenario since public are primary stakeholders in
the case. Consumers have rights to know how the business organizations are doing
in society, as it is right preserved in the summary of rights and remedies of
Supply of Goods and Services Act (c3, 1982), deontology is also very relevant
for the scenario concerning public.
The normative ethical analysis of ISPs has done selecting altruism,
egoism, deontology, and Kant’s second categorical imperative. Premasiri (1998,
pp.77-81) says that an act such as natural, done by an animal, done by under
age person or a person with developmental problems are immune from the
teleological analysis. According to Premasiri
(1998) to analyze, using teleology there should be an intention on the
awareness of the consequences of the act that is performed. In this case, ISPs
have no intention whether it is good or bad, useful or useless, because their
duty is to provide service to the domain owners and public (Johnson, 2001,
p.192). Hence, how ISPs are ethical could not be examined using teleological
theories. However, there is a contradictory view too. Altruism is a
teleological theory (Holland, 2010 and Dhammananda, 2004, p.81), which is
strictly is not self-interested, but includes in its goal, the interest of only
others. ISPs provide a service for others thus, it could be considered in altruism.
Harrison (2005, p.68) says any act, no matter how altruistic it might seem, is
actually motivated by the same selfish desire of the agent such as desire for
reward, avoidance of guilt, personal happiness and so forth. Hence, the acts of
ISPs are not only altruistic but also psychological egoistic. Hence, ISPs can
be considered under altruism and egoism. In any state (Great Britain or Sri
Lanka) ISPs have legal personality and facilitate rapid communication across vast
distances, bringing together user requirements. Providing a service is a duty
for them. Harrison (2005, p.36) says that legally defined duties, obligations
should be considered within a deontological framework, since ISPs have legally
defined duties, ISPs should consider under the deontological theories. The works
of ISPs can analyses using Kantian principles too, because one could argue that
ISPs have pure intention (will) of providing a service than go deep into legal
matters concerning ownership. One could argue that they provide the service
because it is a common good for the modern society. Hence, ISPs act can be
considered using Kant first formulation.
The normative ethical analysis of company (and patent) registrar has done
selecting altruism, egoism, deontology, and Kant’s second categorical
imperative. The arguments already discussed under the teleology of ISP’s is
exactly match with company (and patent) registrar and getting the registration
with company (and patent) registrar is a duty forced in the law of the state. Moreover,
Kant’s first formulation already discussed under the ISPs is also equally
applied for the company (and patent) registrar. Hence, company (and patent)
registrar acts can be analyze using altruism, egoism, deontology and Kant’s
first categorical imperative.
The normative ethical analysis of Social Networking Sites has done
selecting altruism, egoism, utilitarianism, deontology, and Kant’s second
categorical imperative. Arguments provided for ISPs acts under the altruism,
egoism are equally valid for Social Networking Sites. If we consider overall
roll of Social Networking Sites it of course can also be discussed under other
theories such as deontology and Kantianism but it is beyond the scenario.
Altruism, egoism, utilitarianism, and
Kant’s first formulation have selected to do the normative ethical analysis of British Computer Society and legal
associations. Professional associations work for the benefit of society
(Harris, Pritchard, and Rabins, 2003, p.301) which we also accept without
arguments. Hence, the acts of professional associations are altruistic their
action can consider under altruism. Harrison
(2005, p.68) explains a sort of egoism as ‘psychological egoism’, according to Harrison,
which is motivation by a concern for long-term best interest. The professional
associations are established and they work for long-term interest for the group
of people in the same profession. Therefore professional associations belongs
to egoism probably one could name it as group egoism. Professional associations
provided good service to the society maintain high standard of the profession
and they are benefited indirectly. Hence, professional associations can
consider under the utilitarianism. Murray
(1997, p.151) says that professional associations generally seek to establish
minimum standard of conduct for their members, with varying degree of
regulation and policing. That is a will of promoting the professional standard.
Therefore, because of its will the act of professional associations can
consider using Kant’s first formulation. In conclusion, British Computer
Society and legal associations can consider under altruism, egoism, utilitarianism,
and Kant’s first formulation.
Altruism, egoism, deontology, and
both Kant’s first and second categorical imperatives are selected to the
normative ethical analysis of Courts of
Law. The courts of law functions in society purely for the benefit of
society. Hence, its action can consider under altruism. The courts of law
enforce the law in society, which is a duty according to deontologist as discussed
before hence there action can consider under deontology. Kant insisted on
purity of moral goodwill, that is one should not do things because of the
outcome but because the action itself is right and further, moral action is not
a matter of doing things, which also comply, to moral duties but a matter of
doing the right things out of a sense of moral obligation (Pratley, 1997,
p.170). The best motive is the will to one’s duty. Hence, the courts of law
functions can analyze using Kant’s first formulation. The functions of courts
of law treat each person not merely as means, but also as an end in itself.
Thus, the functions of courts of law can analyze using Kant’s second
formulation too. In conclusion, altruism, egoism, deontology, and Kant’s first
and second and categorical imperatives can use to analyze the behaviour of
courts of law.
The possible theories for ethical
analysis of nine stakeholders, in which four are primary and five are secondary
have already discussed under egoism, utilitarianism, altruism, deontology, and both
Kant’s formulations. These theories of course give contradictory views. Apart from all these theories, Buddhist
Axiology provides very good approach to ethical analysis. They are presented in
various texts (sutras) such as five precepts, eight-fold-path of life, singalovada sutra in which explains the
duty, responsibility, and the role relationships between members in the
society, such as teachers and students, parents and children, employers and
employee, husband and wife, and so forth. If we consider the fourth precept of
five precepts, it is abstaining from not taking what is not given (steeling).
The fourth precept further explains five further requirements to judge the
action, namely should know the owner is someone else, the intention to take it,
planning a strategy, implementing a strategy and finally gaining the same. Up
to the point in this scenario MySpace, Inc violated three-fifth of the fourth
precept trying to take what is not given may it be materialistic or intellectual,
what ever the possibility from legal grounds. Hence, the action of MySpace, Inc
can explain in terms of buddhist axiology perfectly.
References
Bowie, N. E. (1999) Business ethics – a Kantian perspectives, Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Cambridge University, (1996) Cambridge international dictionary of English. Cambridge: Press
Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Dhammananda, H. (2004) Buddhist
and kantian moral philosophy. Colombo: S Godage and Brothers.
De George, R. T. (2003) The
ethics of information technology and business, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Des Jardins, J. (2009) An
introduction to business ethics. 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Evan, W. and Freeman, R. E. (2005) A Stakeholder Theory of
the Modern Corporation: Kantian Capitalism in
Des Jardins, J. R. and McCall, J. (eds.) Contemporary issues in business ethics. Belmount, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing. p.80.
Harrison, M. R. (2005) An
introduction to business and management ethics, New York: Palgrave Machillan.
Harris, C. E., Pritchard, M. S. and Rabins, M. J. (2003) Engineering ethics. 2nd ed.,
USA: Wadasworth Thomson Learning, Inc.
Johnson, D. G. (2001) Computer
ethics. 3rd ed., Singapore:
Pearson Education Pte.Ltd.
Kalansooriya, A. D. P. (2002) Modern western philosophy. Peradeniya: University of Peradeniya.
Murray, D. (1997) Ethics
in organizations, London: Kogan Page Limited.
Pierce, J. (nd) Intellectual Property Law for Computer Users in Holt, J. and Newton, J. (eds.) A manager’s guide to IT law. Wiltshire:
The British Computer Society. pp.61-75.
Premasiri, P. D. (1998) Ethics.
Colombo: S Godage and Brothers.
Pratley, P. (1997) The
essence of business ethics. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited.
Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982. (c.3), London: HMSO.
Bibliography
Saddhatissa, H. (1970) Buddhist
ethics: essence of Buddhism. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Santina, P. D. (1984) Fundamentals
of buddhism. Singapore: The Cooperate Body of Buddha, Educational
Foundation.
Hungman, R., and Smith, D. (1995) Ethical issues in social work. London: Rotledge.
Scales for measurement of variables
Scales for measurement of variables
To measure is to assess, quantify, analyze or appraise. It
is to discover the extent, dimensions, capacity and quantity of any physical
object.
Educational research deals mainly with ideas. “How sound is
an idea” is parallel to assessing “how well you like a song, a painting or
personality of your manager”. While physical objects are measured directly,
ideas or concepts are measured with the help of an operational definition. Four
scales are used to measure any object or to quantify any concept or idea or
properties. These are discussed as follows:
NOMINAL SCALE
It is just a label having no intrinsic value or quality. It
cannot be used in grading or ranking, There are no overlaps and nominal scale
are mutually exclusive. One can be either Muslim or non-Muslim, not both at the
same time as it requires an item to be placed in one and only one class. It is
used for counting or cross-tabulation.
Hair could be black or grey, blood can be A, B, O or AB. In
cricket, there is left arm or right arm spinners.
It is used for obtaining personal data and is usually
exhaustive to include all categories or segmentation.
ORDINAL
It used for ranking, rating or grading. It can show best to
worst status or first to last preference. But distance between two ordinal
scales is not the same. Income level of poor, middle and rich class are like
less than Rs.10,000, between Rs.11,000 to Rs.50,000 and 51,000 and above. The
distances are 10,000, 39,000 and infinitive respectively.
It is evident that ordinal scale can rank some items in an
order like less than or more but not “how much more”
INTERVAL
It is more powerful than nominal and ordinal as it not only
orders or ranks or rates but also shows exact distances in between. But it does
not start from zero. If there is zero like zero temperature is not natural but
arbitrary as 0 degree does not mean any temperature. Likewise, year 0 in a
forecast is the end of construction year.
This scale is used in addition or subtraction of scale value
to calculate mean, range, variance, standard deviation, correlation and
regression.
Difference between interval and ordinal scale:
Ordinal scale only ranks but does not measure difference
between the two ranks like “satisfactory” and “not-satisfactory”. Interval
scale not only ranks but also gives exact distance between them by assigning a
value. Difference in temperature of 20 degree and 40 degree is 20 but 40 is not
double hot than 20.
RATIO SCALE
This scale can perform all functions. It can show all
mathematical and geographical indicators. It is useful when exact figures are
required in objective matters are required.
If a person is drawing a salary of Rs.20, 000 and another
Rs.40,000, it can be said that the latter is getting double the salary of the
former.
FOUR SCALES COMPARED
|
NOMINAL
|
ORGINAL
|
INTERVEL
|
RATIO
|
|
Classification but no order,
distance or origin
|
Classification but order but no
distance or unique origin
|
Classification, ordered and
distance but no unique origin
|
Classification, order, distance
and unique origin
|
|
Determining of equality
|
Determination of greater or lesser
value
|
Determination of equality of
intervals or differences
|
Determination of equality of
ratios
|
|
Only Label
|
Ranks, Rating and Grade
|
equal grouping
|
Weight, height
|
|
Gender (male, female)
|
Doneness of meat, (well, medium
well, medium rare, rare)
|
temperature in degrees
|
Age in years
|
|
Counting
|
Frequency Distribution
|
Addition/subtraction but no
multiplication or division
|
All functions
|
|
Black & While
|
AAA, BBB, CCC
|
personality measure
|
Can say no measurable value like
zero sales
|
|
Religion
|
Levels, one-star & 4-star
|
Mean, range, variance, standard
deviation
|
Annual Income
|
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